Reproduction in Lower and Higher animals
Reproductive Health, Birth control, Infertility
Reproductive Health
Means
total wellbeing in all aspects of reproduction- its emotional, behavioural and
social aspects along with the physical ones. (WHO)
A society with people having physically and functionally normal reproductive organs and normal emotional and behavioral interactions amongst them in all sex-related aspects.
India
is in the first few countries initiate action plans and programmes at a
national level to improve reproductive health. .
Currently in operation under the Reproductive and Child Health Care (RCH) programme
Goals of Child Health
Care Programme
To
create awareness among people about various aspects related to reproduction.
To
provide the facilities to people to understand and build up reproductive
health.
To
provide support for building up a reproductively healthy society.
To bring about a change mainly in three critical health indicators i.e. reducing total infertility rate, infant mortality rate and maternal mortality rate.
The goals of Child
Health Care can be achieved by the following ways:
By
introduction of sex education in schools.
Provide
correct information to the young.
Proper
information about safe and hygienic sexual practices, sexually transmitted
diseases (STD, AIDS),
Problems
related to adolescence and proper information about reproductive organs.
By
educating the younger generation about birth control measures, pre-natal care
of pregnant woman and post-natal care of the mother and child, importance of
breast feeding.
By
developing awareness about problems arising due to uncontrolled population
growth, social evils like sex abuse and sex related crimes and take up
necessary steps to prevent them.
By
creating awareness about statutory ban on amniocentesis for sex determination.
By creating awareness about child immunization programmes.
By educating couples to reduce mortality rate of new borns
and maternal mortality rate.
Birth control
Prevent fertilization
are referred to as contraceptives.
Contraceptive methods
help to prevent unwanted pregnancies.
Contraceptive should
be easily available, user friendly, effective and with no or least side
effects.
Contraceptive methods are of two main types i.e. Temporary and permanent.
A.
Temporary methods
1. Natural method/ Safe period /
Rhythm method
2. Coitus Interruptus or withdrawal
3. Lactational amenorrhea
4. Chemical means (spermicides)
5. Mechanical means / Barrier methods
i.
Condom:
ii.
Diaphragm, cervical caps and vaults
iii. Intra-uterine
6.Physiological (Oral) Devices
7. Other contraceptives
B.
Permanent Method
Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)
A. Temporary methods
1.
Natural method/ Safe period / Rhythm method
Principle
of avoiding chances of fertilization is used.
Week
before and a week after menstrual bleeding is considered the safe period for
sexual intercourse.
This
idea is based on the fact that ovulation occurs on the 14th day
of menstrual cycle.
Its
drawback lies in having a high rate of failure.
2.
Coitus Interruptus or withdrawal
male
partner withdraws his penis from the vagina just before ejaculation, to avoid
insemination.
some drawbacks, as the pre-ejaculation fluid may contain sperms and this can cause fertilization.
3.
Lactational
amenorrhea (absence of
menstruation)
based on the fact that ovulation does not occur during the
period of intense lactation following
parturition.
Therefore, as long as the mother breastfeeds the child fully,
chances of conception are almost negligible.
However, this method also has high chances of failure.
4.
Chemical means (spermicides):
Before sexual intercourse chemicals like foam, tablets,
jellies, and creams introduced into the vagina
These chemicals are, adhere to the mucous membrane,
immobilize and kill the sperms
It may cause allergic reaction. This method also has chances of failure.
5.
Mechanical means / Barrier methods
With the help of barriers the ovum and
sperm are prevented from physically meeting.
mechanical barriers are of three types.
A.
Condom
Used by male
Thin
rubber sheath that is used to cover the penis during copulation
Prevents
the entry of ejaculated semen into the female reproductive tract
Simple
and effective no side effects also a safeguard against STDs and AIDS
Easily
available and is given free by the government
Most widely used contraceptive, should be properly discarded after every use
B.
Diaphragm, cervical caps and vaults
Used by the female are made up of rubber.
They prevent conception by blocking the entry of sperms
through the cervix.
Inserted into the female reproductive tract to cover the
cervix during copulation.
C.
Intra-uterine devices (IUDs)
These clinical devices are plastic or metal objects.
A doctor or trained nurse places the IUDs into the uterus.
These devices include
i.
Lippes loop Copper releasing IUDs Hormone
releasing IUDs
Lippes loop is a plastic double “s” loop.
It attracts the macrophages stimulating them to accumulate in
the uterine cavity.
Macrophages increase phagocytosis of sperms within the uterus
and acts as a contraceptive.
ii.
Copper releasing IUDs (Cu-T, Cu7, multiload
375)
Copper releasing IUDs suppress sperm motility and the fertilising capacity of sperms.
iii.
Hormone releasing IUDs (LNG-20,
progestasert)
Make the uterus unsuitable for implantation and cervix
hostile to the sperms.
It delays pregnancy for longer period.
The spontaneous expulsion, occasional haemorrhage and chances
of infection are the drawbacks of IUDs.
D. Physiological (Oral) Devices
In the form of tablets and hence are popularly called pills
Oral contraceptive, contains progesteron and estrogen used by the female
They inhibit ovulation, hence no eggs are released from the
ovary and thus conception cannot occur.
Also alter the quality of cervical mucus to prevent the entry
of sperms.
Have side effects such as nausea, weight gain, tenderness of
breast and slight blood loss between menstrual periods.
“saheli” is an oral contraceptive for females which is nonsteroidal. Taken once in a week
Sponsored by the government
E.
Other contraceptives
i. Implant is a contraceptive used by the female.
tiny, thin rod about the size of a matchstick.
Implanted under the skin of the upper arm.
They contain progesterone and estrogen.
Their mode of action is similar to that of pills.
They prevent pregnancy for 3-4 years.
2.
Permanent Method
These are surgical methods, also called sterilization.
i. The permanent birth control method in men
is called vasectomy
Small part of the vas deferens is tied
ii. And in women it is called tubectomy.
Tubectomy, a small part of the fallopian tube is tied and
cut.
This blocks, gamete transport and prevent pregnancy.
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3. Medical Termination of Pregnancy (MTP)
An intentional or voluntary termination of pregnancy also
called induced abortion.
Essential in cases of unwanted pregnancies or in defective
development of foetus.
Defective development of foetus is examined by amniocentesis
, safe during the
first trimester of pregnancy.
Amniotic fluid containing foetal cells is collected using a
hollow needle inserted into the uterus under ultrasound guidance. Process
called Amniocentesis
Chromosomes are studied to see the abnormalities
But the dangerous trend is sex determination
If the foetus is found to be female, it is which is totally illegal.
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Government Act
Government of India has legalised MTP Act in 1971.
MTP Act 2017 under section 3 of the MTP Act 1971 was enacted
by Government of India.
To reduce the incidence of illegal abortion and consequent
maternal mortality.
As per the provisions of the MTP act, only the consent of
woman whose pregnancy is being terminated is required.
Within first 12 weeks
More than 12 weeks but lesser than 20 weeks.
The registered medical practitioner’s opinion is mandatory
Pregnancy would involve a risk to the life of the pregnant
woman or grave abnormal physical or mental health or is substantial risk to the
child.
Infertility
Inability
to conceive naturally after (one year of) regular unprotected intercourse is
called infertility.
Causes
could be physical, congenital, diseases, immunological or even psychological
In
female common causes are polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), hormonal imbalance,
endometriosis
In
male, it is less sperm count and small size of penis
Prior
to 1978, infertile couple had two options, adopt or be childless.
Today
couple many options such as fertility drugs, test tube babies, artificial
insemination, IUI, surrogate motherhood, etc.
Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART).
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The couple could be assisted to have child / children through certain special techniques common
3. GIFT (Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer)
4. ICSI (Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection)
5. Artificial Insemination (AI)
6. IUI (Intra Uterine Insemination)
IVF (In Vitro Fertilization)
It
is a process of fertilization where fertilization occur outside the body in a
test tube or glass plate under simulated conditions in the laboratory.
zygote or early embryos (with up to 8 blastomeres) then transfer into the fallopian tube for further development.
ZIFT (Zygote Intrafallopian Transfer)
ZIFT
is an infertility treatment used when there is a blockage in the fallopian
tubes which prevents the fertilization of egg by the sperm.
Egg
is removed from woman’s ovary zygote is form outside the body by the process called in vitro fertilization
(IVF).
The zygote is then transferred to fallopian tube for further development.
GIFT
(Gamete Intrafallopian Transfer)
This technique is developed only for when the upper segment
of the oviducts is blocked.
In this procedure ova and sperms are directly injected into
regions of the oviduct, where fertilization produces a blastocyst, which enters
the uterus via the normal route.
GIFT has a success rate of about 30 percent
ICSI
(Intra Cytoplasmic Sperm Injection)
ICSI
is an in vitro fertilization procedure in which a single sperm cell is
injected directly into cytoplasm of an ovum in the laboratory.
Here
the sperm has to naturally penetrate the egg.
Artificial
Insemination (AI)
Male
partner is unable to inseminate the female due to a very low sperm count.
In
this technique, the sperms are collected from the male and artificially
introduced into the cervix of female, for the purpose of achieving a pregnancy
through in vivo fertilization (inside the body).
IUI
(Intra Uterine Insemination)
In this technique the process is somewhat like that of
artificial insemination, the only difference is that the sperms are introduced
into the uterine cavity instead of cervix.
Adoption
It is legal process in which a couple or a single parent gets
legal rights, privileges and responsibilities that are associated to a
biological child for the upbringing of the adopted child.
An adoptive parent should be medically fit and financially
able to take care of the adopted child.
A person wishing to adopt a child must be at least 21 years
old but there is no legal upper age limit for adoption.
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